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Adverse effect of technology on marine life Home
Prawn trawling is an
archaic, wasteful technology that is one of the greatest threats to biodiversity in the
Great Barrier Reef Region.
Its impact on the seabed is
similar to clear felling and logging our native forests. CSIRO studies show that each
trawl removes roughly 5 - 25 % of the animals and plants on the seabed. If an area of the
seabed is trawled 13 times, this destructive technology removes 70 - 90% of marine life -
effectively strip mining the seafloor.
It is a frightening fact
that we don't even know what we are losing before it is gone. These seafloor communities
are poorly studied and poorly understood. The complex interactions between these organisms
and the rest of the reef ecosystem remain elusive. However, what scientists can confirm is
that the seabed plays a vital role in supporting the myriad of life found in this area. By
allowing this practice to continue in the absence of sound knowledge, we jeopardise the
future of the Great Barrier Reef.
It is important to realise
that prawn trawling does not occur directly on the coral reef itself (which makes up 6% of
the World Heritage Area). However, trawling’s impacts have the potential to flow
through the whole interconnected ecosystem of the Great Barrier Reef World Heritage Area.
And the tale of destruction
does not end here.
Prawn trawling captures and
kills a far greater range of marine species that the prawns being targeted and retained
for sale. These discarded creatures are thrown back over the side. CSIRO found that more
than 75% of the discards are made up of small fish and juveniles; the remainder is made up
of crabs and other crustaceans and shellfish. An incredible 90% of fish caught were dead
on return to the sea.
Compared to other forms of
commercial fishing, trawling is the most destructive and wasteful. The government's own
figures claim that, for every kilo of prawns caught 9kg to 12kg of fish and other marine
animals are captured and tossed over the side – that is 55 000 tonnes of discarded
marine life every year! Most do not survive. Turtles, sharks, rays, small fish and
crustaceans are just some of the victims.
This appalling waste of
marine life is euphemistically referred to in the industry as “marine trash”.
The beautiful and
threatened loggerhead turtle is the most heartbreaking casualty of trawling. Loggerhead
turtle populations have plummeted by 90% in the last 30 years and scientists have
identified trawling as one of the main causes. This species may be well on its way to
critically endangered status.
Turtles who are unfortunate
enough to be caught in the path of a trawl net may drown in the net, suffer skull or
cervical fractures when they are dumped onto the trawler sorting tray, or may drown or be
more susceptible to shark attack if they are returned to the water in a semi-comatose
state.
It is a bitter irony that
these ancient creatures, which are being so carelessly destroyed, are one of the natural
attributes promoted in the Great Barrier Reef's World Heritage listing.
The Government is moving to
introduce devices, which in theory can reduce the amount of non-targeted fish caught.
However these so-called Bycatch Reduction Devices or BRDs will, according to the
Queensland Commercial Fishermen's Organisation, only reduce the amount of marine fauna
killed by trawling by between 12% and 15%. The maximum reduction achievable is
approximately 50%. There will always be large volumes of small fish caught in trawl nets
because their size and behaviour patterns are virtually identical to prawns. BRDs will not
stop the destruction!
There are specialised BRDs
called Turtle Excluder Devices (TEDs) that would significantly reduce the number of
loggerheads caught. However, these are not mandatory in the Great Barrier Reef Region.
Recent Queensland management proposals are inadequate, with only a few areas nominated to
require compulsory TED use. Until they become mandatory throughout the whole World
Heritage Area, TEDs will do little to stem the flood of turtle deaths.
The final twist in this
trawling tragedy is that most of these prawns are destined for the export market. 80%
never reach Australian tables.
Given the impacts on the
seafloor and the enormous volumes of wasted marine life generated by trawling, this
practice cannot be made sustainable. Restricting trawling into a few areas of intense
activity, effectively creating sacrifice zones, is not an appropriate management practice
for a World Heritage Area and BRDs do not provide the answer to the "discards"
problem.
In any environmental
controversy there are always strong social and economic elements. Any move to resolve such
disputes in the long term need to address these considerations seriously.
We are pursuing the
creation of a new prawn industry in Queensland; one that is ecologically sustainable as
well as socially and economically viable.
Other prawn fisheries
around the globe are based on prawn trapping. Trapping forms the basis of the prawn
industry on the west coast of Canada, and is also used in the deep sea Hawaiian Island
fisheries.
Trapping has numerous
environmental benefits. The seafloor communities remain intact, as the seabed is not clear
felled by the process. Traps and pots are selective for prawns, so other marine fauna is
unaffected.
This technology can provide
the solution to the prawn trawl issue by protecting our most precious World Heritage Area
and supporting coastal communities.
We urgently need to conduct
research that will adapt this technology for Australian waters, so that this solution can
be realised.
The Wilderness Society is
laying the foundations for a properly funded, credible research program into alternative,
ecologically sustainable methods of prawn and scallop capture.
While the debate about
prawn trawling is a complex one, the protection of the Great Barrier Reef is our central
concern.
Therefore The Wilderness
Society’s alternative technology program is underpinned by a clear timeframe for the
conversion of the current industry to a sustainable footing, beyond which the use of
present trawl technology should not be permitted.
We are calling for the
complete phase out and replacement of trawl technology in the Great Barrier Reef World
Heritage Area, by 2005.
The Wilderness Society is
campaigning to realise our vision for the Great Barrier Reef. We are working to ensure
that the Reef is managed to protect the world heritage values for which it was listed, and
to ensure that its precious biodiversity, wildness and beauty are passed on to future
generations.
By working from a solutions
based agenda, and with the support and action of the community, we can fulfil our vision.
Our Great Barrier Reef is
too precious to lose.
2:- Impact of Noise on Marine Mammals
Remains Unclear
The ocean environment has always included an abundance of natural noises, such as the
sounds generated by rain, waves, earthquakes, and sea creatures. However, a growing number
of ships and oil rigs, as well as increased use of sonar by navies and researchers, is
adding to the natural noise that already surrounds marine life. Although noise in the sea
has increased steadily since the Industrial Revolution, there is little information on
exactly how noisy it has become or how marine mammals in particular react to the noise.
Nevertheless, recent episodes in which dolphins and whales have beached themselves while
human-generated sounds were being deployed nearby have raised questions about the impact
of ocean noise.
A new report from the National Academies' National Research Council says that a single
federal agency should be put in charge of monitoring marine noise and should fund research
into how human-generated sounds may affect marine mammals and other sea life. This
agency's priorities should include investigating possible links between the use of
high-energy, midrange sonars and mass strandings of marine mammals, and studying whether
human-generated sound induces stress or subtle behavioral changes in these animals.
Beaked whales in particular have suffered traumatic injuries and stranded themselves in
locations where naval sonar was being used nearby, but there is not enough data to
determine whether sonar caused the strandings, said the committee that wrote the report.
It is important to determine whether there is any connection between sonar use and
beachings and, if so, whether this link is peculiar to beaked whales or if other sea
species may be affected as well. Progress in this area can only be made if researchers
study the impact of noise in an actual ocean environment, the committee noted.
Scientists' efforts to determine how sound affects marine life are hindered by a lack of
general information about both the amount and sources of ocean noise. A count of
commercial ships coupled with observational data suggests that noise levels from ship
traffic have increased approximately 15 decibels in the last 50 years, the report says; it
is difficult to know whether sound levels are continuing to increase, however, because
newer ships may be quieter. The little information that does exist is scattered among
shipping companies, oil and gas businesses, academic institutions, and the military. To
remedy this, the agency mandated to facilitate ocean-noise research should gather all
existing data on human-generated ocean noise into one comprehensive database, the
committee said. The agency should also initiate a long-term program to monitor sound in
the sea, targeting important marine-mammal habitats such as coastal areas and known
migration paths, feeding grounds, and breeding areas.
Also needed are better models to predict the noise levels that will be generated in the
ocean by particular human activities. For example, a better understanding of what noise
ships generate would give researchers the ability to project how much noise will occur in
different parts of the ocean based on ship traffic patterns. Such projections would be
particularly useful for understanding ocean noise in areas of the globe where direct
monitoring with instruments is difficult or impossible.
In addition, acoustics experts, marine biologists, oceanographers, and other users of
sound in the ocean, such as the military and the oil industry, should make greater efforts
to raise public awareness of the complex scientific and technical issues involved in
trying to understand the potential impact of noise on marine mammals and the need for
additional research, the committee said.
pic 8
The study was requested by the National Ocean Partnership Program, a federal interagency
project, and sponsored by the Office of Naval Research, the National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S. Geological
Survey. The National Research Council is the principal operating arm of the National
Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering. It is a private, nonprofit
institution that provides independent advice on science and technology issues under
congressional charter. A committee roster follows.
Saudi Arabia: Environmental Issues
Introduction
Environmental protection issues in Saudi Arabia are strongly linked -- but not limited --
to the production, processing and transportation of oil and natural gas. In recent years,
Saudi Arabia has been increasing its efforts aimed at protecting the country from various
environmental hazards, while attempting to balance these concerns with the country's heavy
dependence on hydrocarbon production and export. On the whole, Saudi Arabia is striving to
minimize the impacts of the country's hydrocarbons sector on its environment (including
the waters surrounding Saudi Arabia). Saudi Arabia also is attempting to safeguard the
health of its rapidly growing population..
Saudi Arabia is keen to protect the environmental safety of
the Persian Gulf and Red Sea, and the Saudi petroleum industry--led by Saudi Aramco, the
state oil company--has contributed to environmental protection through safety measures,
early warning systems against possible leakage, and advanced methods to control and
contain any pollution. Saudi Aramco's Environmental Conservation Policy directs that the
company not create undue risks to the environment, and that operations be carried out with
concern for protection of the land, air, and water. Aramco has developed an array of
operational requirements, engineering standards, and performance guidelines to implement
this policy, including sanitary codes, environmental assessments, bioremediation, air
quality and emission standards, noise-control regulations, landfill standards, water
recycling procedures, hazardous material disposal rules, and oil spill contingency plans.
As world oil demand increases, however, Saudi Arabia is increasing its production and
export capacity, leading to an increasing volume of oil being shipped through pipelines
and via tankers. As shipping traffic becomes more congested, the odds of spills and
accidents increases, putting the environment at greater risk.
Environmental Impact of Oil Exploration and Production
Although technological innovations have reduced the impact that oil exploration and
extraction have on the environment, risks still remain. Offshore drilling can affect the
integrity of the coastal shelf, as well as have a negative effect on marine life.
Transporting oil to world markets -- via barge, supertanker, or pipeline - -runs the risk
of spillage. Although improved ship design and better cleanup techniques have reduced the
impact of oil spills, oil discharges in the Persian Gulf -- both accidental and otherwise
-- have been on the increase, posing a threat to Gulf ecology and environment.
Offshore Development and Marine Life
A relative lack of precipitation, human population, inflow from rivers, and other natural
disturbances has helped keep Red Sea reefs generally healthy. However, reefs located along
the Saudi coast are threatened by pollution from offshore hydrocarbon development, as well
as from the de-ballasting of oil tankers and other ships moving through the heavily
trafficked Red Sea and Persian Gulf regions.
On the Persian Gulf side, Saudi Arabia has infilled more than 40% of its coastline, wiping
out half of its mangroves, while dredging and sedimentation are causing major ecological
problems in coastal habitats. Fewer coral species thrive in the Persian Gulf than in the
Red Sea, with many living near their maximum tolerances due to high salinity and wide
temperature swings. Environmentalists have warned that a significant percentage of the oil
produced by offshore oil rigs has been spilling into the sea (which is already prone to
contamination due to a relatively shallow average depth of of 97 feet) because of seepages
in the sea bed, cracks in rigs, illegal discharges by oil companies and vessels and
accidental spills.
In addition, salt-laden wastewater from the oil production process that is dumped into the
Gulf is increasing the salinity of the water and posing a grave threat to marine life. The
Regional Organization for the Protection of the Marine Environment, a leading Arab
environmental organization, warns that a September 1999 die-off of fish in the northern
Gulf, due to high salt level in the water and 100-degree water temperatures, is the result
of global warming compounded by indiscriminate dumping of wastewater in the region by oil
companies and unchecked oil seepage. Although the latest industrial techniques go a long
way to ensure that waste is handled in an environmentally-responsible fashion, many oil
companies in the region have yet to implement these technologies.
However, Saudi Arabia is beginning to take steps towards protecting its marine habitats
while exploring for offshore oil. In 1997, Aramco began a study with the Research
Institute at the King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals in Dhahran to determine
whether shallow marine habitats along the Red Sea coastline can be mapped reliably using
satellite remote-sensing data and sophisticated image-processing techniques, thereby
minimizing costly and damaging fieldwork. Such mapping is part of the company's ongoing
effort to minimize the impact of shoreline and offshore activities on the marine
environment.
Aramco is undertaking a number of studies to determine how better to minimize its impact
on the marine environment. Major marine studies include the 18-year-old Bioaccumulation
Monitoring Program, which monitors the entry of hydrocarbons and heavy-metal toxins into
the food chain of Gulf Coast clams. The Bioassay Toxicity Testing Program, the first of
its kind in the region, tests the effect of drilling muds on laboratory-raised kin of the
Gulf shrimp. The study has helped in the development of nontoxic drilling muds. Aramco
also has worked with the National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development to
plant mangrove trees along the Persian Gulf coastline of the Ras Tanura Peninsula,
providing a nursery for fish and shrimp, and expanding the biological habitat in Tarut
Bay.
Spills and Response Preparedness
Oil spills are a major threat to both the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. Heavy oil tanker
traffic through several chokepoints, including Bab el-Mandab, the Strait of Hormuz, and
the Suez Canal and Sumed Pipeline, are a constant threat. In addition, the extensive
shallow coastal waters limit on-water recovery methods, making preventive strategies all
the more important to protect coastal resources. In November 2000, a Saudi environmental
report estimated that one million barrels of oil and waste products were dumpted or
spilled into the Persian Gulf every year by shipping. Pollution also stems from oil and
natural gas extraction activities. Gulf countries have established 21 centers along the
coast in order to collect waste coming from shipping, and are looking to tighten
restrictions on oil tankers entering the Gulf.
Nevertheless, the Persian Gulf has experienced a number of moderate-to-large oil spills
over the past 20 years. During the Iran-Iraq war from 1980 to 1988, oil tankers in the
Gulf were attacked, resulting in thousands of barrels of oil spillage. However, the damage
done to the environment by that war was dwarfed by the catastrophic effects of oil spilled
during the Persian Gulf War: on January 23, 1991, Iraq began intentionally pumping crude
oil into the Gulf from the Sea Island supertanker terminal 10 miles off the Kuwaiti coast.
The spill, described by then-Pentagon spokesman Pete Williams described the act as
"the worst environmental disaster in the history of the Persian Gulf," is also
the worst recorded oil spill in world history, with approximately 5.7 million barrels of
oil dumped.
In addition, the Gulf Area Oil Companies Mutual Aid Organization (GAOCMAO), was
established to protect the marine environment in the Persian Gulf from oil pollution
emanating from operations of GAOCMAO member oil companies in the region. The organization
was founded on the idea that each company shares the responsibility to ensure a long-term
commitment to the "Clean Gulf" concept by preventing operational oil spills,
stopping tanker discharges, safety of ships leading to cleaner seas, and total stoppage of
industrial waste discharge to sea.
Saudi Aramco, which is a charter member of GAOCMAO, is also a member of several key
regional and international agencies involved in oil spill response. Aramco is a member of
the International Petroleum Industry Environmental Conservation Association, whose main
purpose is to inform members of environmental developments and facilitate communications
between the oil industry and relevant organizations on environmental issues. The company
also participates in the Oil Industry International Exploration & Production Forum,
the Oil Companies International Marine Forum, and ITOPF.
In addition to its readiness training, Aramco maintains regional command and control
centers for oil spill response, and houses emergency equipment, including dedicated
aircraft, to battle spills at sea. Aramco engages in air and sea surveillance of all its
offshore operating areas, and has a full-time oil spill cleanup group dedicated to the
task of pollution control in and around the company's exporting terminals.
In February 2002, Saudi Arabia and Iran signed a Memorandum
of Understanding (MoU) on environmental cooperation between the two countries. The MoU
covers various envrionmental issues, including "protecting various species of animals
and wildlife as well as other fields related to the environment."
Air Pollution
According to Municipal and Rural Affairs Minister Dr. Muhammad Al-Jarallah, pollution in
Saudi cities is the lowest in the Middle East. Aramco operates 10 Air Quality Monitoring
and Meteorology Network (AMMNET) stations and 15 meteorology-only stations throughout the
Kingdom. AMMNET stations ensure facilities meet national and company air quality standards
for limits on sulfur dioxide, inhalable particulates, ozone, nitrogen oxides, carbon
monoxide and hydrogen sulfide, among other pollutants.
Air quality in Saudi Arabia's Eastern Province has benefited greatly from several
initiatives. Aramco's Master Gas System, which significantly reduced the need for flaring,
recovers more than 3,500 tons of elemental sulfur per day from gas produced in association
with crude oil. Also, in July 1999 the Saudi Consolidated Electric Company announced that
all service and repair workshops in the city of Jubail, including some at the Jubail
Industrial City itself, would be relocated to a new site outside the residential areas and
far from the city zones in order to protect the population from pollution and hazardous
waste.
Saudi air quality has been helped by the introduction of unleaded gasoline in the country
in January 2001. Currently, service stations in Saudi Arabia sell lead-free gasoline with
the octane boosting additive MTBE (methyl tertiary butyl ether). Leaded gasoline now has
been eliminated for the most part.
In addition, the first natural gas-powered car will come into use in Saudi Arabia in March
2001. The project to replace gasoline with natural gas was adopted by the Chamber of
Commerce Council (CCC) in cooperation with Saudi Aramco, and the experimental operation
will start at the Riyadh premises of the CCC.
As the price of gasoline has risen in Saudi Arabia (in March
2000, the average price of one gallon of premium gasoline in Saudi Arabia was $1.51 per
gallon), smaller cars with better gas mileage have become more popular. So although there
are more cars on Saudi roads, those cars are more fuel efficient and less-polluting than
in the past.
Water Pollution
Saudi water and sewage infrastructure has not kept up with the country's rapidly growing
population in recent decades. As a result, cities like Jeddah have experienced serious
problems with pollution of underground aquifers by sewage seepage. In 2001, the governor
of Mecca province, Prince Abdul-Magid Bin Abdul-Aziz, acknowledged that only 10% of Jeddah
residents were "connected to the sewerage network," and that in general the
problem was caused by "time-worn and outdated sewage pipelines."
Energy Consumption
Saudi Arabia's energy consumption has climbed dramatically over the past two decades.
Since 1980, when total energy consumption was 1.7 quadrillion Btu (quads), the country's
consumption has nearly tripled, to 4.6 quads in 2000. The country's increasing energy
consumption is similar to that of other countries in the region, such as Iran, Turkey, and
Egypt, all of which have seen their energy consumption nearly triple over the past 20
years or so. Overall, Saudi Arabia accounts for 1.1% of world energy consumption.
Saudi Arabia's industrial and transportation sectors account for the largest share (at
around two-fifths each) of the country's total energy consumption. Saudi Arabia's
residential and commercial sectors account for the remaining fifth of national energy
consumption. Not surprisingly, oil makes up the bulk of this consumption--59%--with
natural gas accounting for the remainder.
As Saudi energy consumption has grown, demand has started to tax the ability of energy
producers to provide enough supplies. Saudi Arabia has warned consumers that skyrocketing
power demand is threatening to overload existing capacity. Thus, since mid-1999, the
government has been conducting an energy conservation campaign that urges consumers to
turn off their air conditioners when they are away from home--during peak periods, air
conditioning accounts for as much as 70% of energy use in Saudi Arabia.
To reduce the amount of energy it consumes, Aramco has implemented an Industrial Waste
Minimization Program. The program, which is mainly geared to reduce waste and lower
associated costs, includes the installation of flare-gas compressors to recover gases and
the use of flue-gas oxygen analyzers to optimize fuel consumption and limit emissions.
Carbon and Energy-Related Emissions
However, in terms of per capita carbon emissions, Saudi Arabia is still a regional leader.
In 2000, the country's per capita carbon emissions were 3.7 metric tons. This figure
stands out all the more in comparison to Saudi Arabia's neighbors: per capita carbon
emissions in Israel were 2.8 metric tons of carbon, in Libya 2.1, Iran 1.3, Turkey 0.8,
and Egypt 0.5. Saudi Arabia's per capita carbon emissions level remains well below that of
the United States (5.6 metric tons of carbon per person).
Saudi Arabia is a signatory to the London Protocol, which calls for phasing out
chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) gases harmful to the ozone layer by 2010, and Aramco, in keeping
with the protocol on ozone-depleting substances, has been identifying its CFC-based
cooling systems and converting them to alternative compounds. However, under the United
Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Saudi Arabia, a non-Annex I country, is
not required to reduce its emissions below 1990 levels. Although Saudi Arabia ratified the
Convention, it is not a signatory to the Kyoto Protocol. Nevertheless, Aramco has
installed a remote optical sensing system for atmospheric emissions monitoring.
A study conducted in the late 1990s by the Saudi
Environmental Protection Agency stated that global warming would adversely affect Saudi
Arabia's weather, indicated that climate change is already having an effect on the
country. MEPA predicts in the report that climate change over the next three decades will
cause even more extreme heat waves during the Kingdom's summer, as well as more extreme
weather conditions in the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea Coast.
Energy and Carbon Intensity
Oil production--from drilling and extracting to refining of finished products--is an
energy intensive process, requiring a substantial amount of energy per unit of "value
added." Given that Saudi Arabia is a huge oil and gas, producer, it is not surprising
that the country is very energy-intensive, even higher than that of other OPEC countries
in the region. Saudi Arabia's 2000 energy intensity was 32,758 Btu/$1995, compared to
39,411 Btu/$1995 in Iran, and 18,302 Btu/$1995 in Libya. In relation to non-OPEC states in
the region, Saudi Arabia's energy intensity level was higher than Egypt's 25,531
Btu/$1995, as well as Turkey's 15,533 Btu/$1995 and Israel's 7,396 Btu/$1995..
Likewise, Saudi Arabia's 2000 carbon intensity of 0.55
metric tons/thousand $1995 was higher than most other countries in the region (Iran's
carbon intensity level was 0.68 metric tons/thousand $1995). Saudi Arabia's carbon
intensity was higher than Egypt's (0.42 metric tons/thousand $1995), Libya's (0.35 metric
tons/thousand $1995), Turkey's (0.27 metric tons/thousand $1995), and Israel's (0.16
metric tons/thousand $1995).
RenewableEnergy:-
With the world's largest petroleum reserves and its greatest oil production capacity,
Saudi Arabia lacks a strong economic incentive to pursue the development of renewable
energy sources. Consequently, the country consumes almost no renewable energy (less than
0.1% of total energy consumption). With little rainfall and a lack of perennial rivers or
permanent water bodies, Saudi Arabia has little hydropower potential. Although the
government has built several dams in order to exploit rain and flood waters as efficiently
as possible, these have functioned more for water reserves than for power generation.
One renewable energy source with abundant potential in the "Desert Kingdom" is
solar power. Saudi Arabia has contributed to solar energy research and developed a number
of solar-power projects, including desalination plants and green house air-conditioning
systems using solar energy. In addition, in May 1999 Saudi scientists and engineers
completed the design of a solar-powered car, the first to be designed locally.
Saudi Arabia in the 21st Century
The Saudi government has intensified its efforts to increase public awareness and
encourage individual and group initiatives to protect the environment. In May 1999, Saudi
Arabia established a national environment committee aiming to generate more public
awareness about the environment. The announcement, by the Council of Saudi Chambers of
Commerce and Industry (CSCCI), was the first initiative taken by CSCCI to define Saudi
Arabia's environmental strategy for the 21st century. According to the World Bank, the
country will have to invest substantial capital in the environmental sector in coming
years in order to become more sustainable; the Bank has estimated that the Arab world will
need to invest $100 billion in its environmental sector over the next 10 years to protect
the environment.
Aramco has become a regional leader in safeguarding the environment, spending millions of
dollars annually on safety measures to protect the land, air, and water from harmful
pollution. However, while oil spill cleanup and response preparedness have improved,
preventive measures are still needed. Saudi Minister of petroleum and Natural Resources
Ali Al-Naimi recently called on Gulf countries to cooperate on a solution to illegal oil
discharges in Gulf waters by oil tankers, proposing closer cooperation amongst Gulf Arab
countries. Overall, Saudi Arabia and other Gulf countries have begun to shift their
thinking on environmental matters from crisis response to crisis prevention.
| Home |
| Introduction |
| Advantages of technolgy |
| Adverse effect of technology and its causes |
| Precautions |
| Conclusion |